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NAME | DESCRIPTION | NOTES | SEE ALSO | COLOPHON |
GLOB(7) Linux Programmer's Manual GLOB(7)
glob - globbing pathnames
Long ago, in UNIX V6, there was a program /etc/glob that would expand
wildcard patterns. Soon afterward this became a shell built-in.
These days there is also a library routine glob(3) that will perform
this function for a user program.
The rules are as follows (POSIX.2, 3.13).
Wildcard matching
A string is a wildcard pattern if it contains one of the characters
'?', '*' or '['. Globbing is the operation that expands a wildcard
pattern into the list of pathnames matching the pattern. Matching is
defined by:
A '?' (not between brackets) matches any single character.
A '*' (not between brackets) matches any string, including the empty
string.
Character classes
An expression "[...]" where the first character after the leading '['
is not an '!' matches a single character, namely any of the
characters enclosed by the brackets. The string enclosed by the
brackets cannot be empty; therefore ']' can be allowed between the
brackets, provided that it is the first character. (Thus, "[][!]"
matches the three characters '[', ']' and '!'.)
Ranges
There is one special convention: two characters separated by '-'
denote a range. (Thus, "[A-Fa-f0-9]" is equivalent to
"[ABCDEFabcdef0123456789]".) One may include '-' in its literal
meaning by making it the first or last character between the
brackets. (Thus, "[]-]" matches just the two characters ']' and '-',
and "[--0]" matches the three characters '-', '.', '0', since '/'
cannot be matched.)
Complementation
An expression "[!...]" matches a single character, namely any
character that is not matched by the expression obtained by removing
the first '!' from it. (Thus, "[!]a-]" matches any single character
except ']', 'a' and '-'.)
One can remove the special meaning of '?', '*' and '[' by preceding
them by a backslash, or, in case this is part of a shell command
line, enclosing them in quotes. Between brackets these characters
stand for themselves. Thus, "[[?*\]" matches the four characters
'[', '?', '*' and '\'.
Pathnames
Globbing is applied on each of the components of a pathname
separately. A '/' in a pathname cannot be matched by a '?' or '*'
wildcard, or by a range like "[.-0]". A range containing an explicit
'/' character is syntactically incorrect. (POSIX requires that
syntactically incorrect patterns are left unchanged.)
If a filename starts with a '.', this character must be matched
explicitly. (Thus, rm * will not remove .profile, and tar c * will
not archive all your files; tar c . is better.)
Empty lists
The nice and simple rule given above: "expand a wildcard pattern into
the list of matching pathnames" was the original UNIX definition. It
allowed one to have patterns that expand into an empty list, as in
xv -wait 0 *.gif *.jpg
where perhaps no *.gif files are present (and this is not an error).
However, POSIX requires that a wildcard pattern is left unchanged
when it is syntactically incorrect, or the list of matching pathnames
is empty. With bash one can force the classical behavior using this
command:
shopt -s nullglob
(Similar problems occur elsewhere. For example, where old scripts
have
rm `find . -name "*~"`
new scripts require
rm -f nosuchfile `find . -name "*~"`
to avoid error messages from rm called with an empty argument list.)
Regular expressions
Note that wildcard patterns are not regular expressions, although
they are a bit similar. First of all, they match filenames, rather
than text, and secondly, the conventions are not the same: for
example, in a regular expression '*' means zero or more copies of the
preceding thing.
Now that regular expressions have bracket expressions where the
negation is indicated by a '^', POSIX has declared the effect of a
wildcard pattern "[^...]" to be undefined.
Character classes and internationalization
Of course ranges were originally meant to be ASCII ranges, so that
"[ -%]" stands for "[ !"#$%]" and "[a-z]" stands for "any lowercase
letter". Some UNIX implementations generalized this so that a range
X-Y stands for the set of characters with code between the codes for
X and for Y. However, this requires the user to know the character
coding in use on the local system, and moreover, is not convenient if
the collating sequence for the local alphabet differs from the
ordering of the character codes. Therefore, POSIX extended the
bracket notation greatly, both for wildcard patterns and for regular
expressions. In the above we saw three types of items that can occur
in a bracket expression: namely (i) the negation, (ii) explicit
single characters, and (iii) ranges. POSIX specifies ranges in an
internationally more useful way and adds three more types:
(iii) Ranges X-Y comprise all characters that fall between X and Y
(inclusive) in the current collating sequence as defined by the
LC_COLLATE category in the current locale.
(iv) Named character classes, like
[:alnum:] [:alpha:] [:blank:] [:cntrl:]
[:digit:] [:graph:] [:lower:] [:print:]
[:punct:] [:space:] [:upper:] [:xdigit:]
so that one can say "[[:lower:]]" instead of "[a-z]", and have things
work in Denmark, too, where there are three letters past 'z' in the
alphabet. These character classes are defined by the LC_CTYPE
category in the current locale.
(v) Collating symbols, like "[.ch.]" or "[.a-acute.]", where the
string between "[." and ".]" is a collating element defined for the
current locale. Note that this may be a multicharacter element.
(vi) Equivalence class expressions, like "[=a=]", where the string
between "[=" and "=]" is any collating element from its equivalence
class, as defined for the current locale. For example, "[[=a=]]"
might be equivalent to "[aáàäâ]", that is, to "[a[.a-acute.][.a-
grave.][.a-umlaut.][.a-circumflex.]]".
sh(1), fnmatch(3), glob(3), locale(7), regex(7)
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Linux 2016-10-08 GLOB(7)
Pages that refer to this page: dpkg(1), git-describe(1), systemctl(1), systemd-analyze(1), fnmatch(3), glob(3), mdadm.conf(5), uri(7), pam_succeed_if(8)