Oracle SQL enables you to create and manipulate many other types of schema objects.

The principal types of schema objects are shown in the following table.

Other types of objects are also stored in the database and can be created and manipulated with SQL statements but are not contained in a schema. These objects include database user account, roles, contexts, and dictionary objects.

Some schema objects store data in a type of logical storage structure called a segment. For example, a nonpartitioned heap-organized table or an index creates a segment.

Other schema objects, such as views and sequences, consist of metadata only. This topic describes only schema objects that have segments.

Oracle Database stores a schema object logically within a tablespace. There is no relationship between schemas and tablespaces: a tablespace can contain objects from different schemas, and the objects for a schema can be contained in different tablespaces. The data of each object is physically contained in one or more data files.

The following figure shows a possible configuration of table and index segments, tablespaces, and data files. The data segment for one table spans two data files, which are both part of the same tablespace. A segment cannot span multiple tablespaces.

Figure 2-2 Segments, Tablespaces, and Data Files

Description of "Figure 2-2 Segments, Tablespaces, and Data Files"

Some schema objects refer to other objects, creating a schema object dependency.

For example, a view contains a query that references tables or views, while a PL/SQL subprogram invokes other subprograms. If the definition of object A references object B, then A is a dependent object on B, and B is a referenced object for A.

Oracle Database provides an automatic mechanism to ensure that a dependent object is always up to date with respect to its referenced objects. When you create a dependent object, the database tracks dependencies between the dependent object and its referenced objects. When a referenced object changes in a way that might affect a dependent object, the database marks the dependent object invalid. For example, if a user drops a table, no view based on the dropped table is usable.

An invalid dependent object must be recompiled against the new definition of a referenced object before the dependent object is usable. Recompilation occurs automatically when the invalid dependent object is referenced.

As an illustration of how schema objects can create dependencies, the following sample script creates a table test_table and then a procedure that queries this table:

CREATE TABLE test_table ( col1 INTEGER, col2 INTEGER );

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE test_proc
AS
BEGIN
 FOR x IN ( SELECT col1, col2 FROM test_table )
 LOOP
   -- process data
   NULL;
 END LOOP;
END;
/

The following query of the status of procedure test_proc shows that it is valid:

SQL> SELECT OBJECT_NAME, STATUS FROM USER_OBJECTS WHERE OBJECT_NAME = 'TEST_PROC';
 
OBJECT_NAME STATUS
----------- -------
TEST_PROC   VALID

After adding the col3 column to test_table, the procedure is still valid because the procedure has no dependencies on this column:

SQL> ALTER TABLE test_table ADD col3 NUMBER;
 
Table altered.
 
SQL> SELECT OBJECT_NAME, STATUS FROM USER_OBJECTS WHERE OBJECT_NAME = 'TEST_PROC';
 
OBJECT_NAME STATUS
----------- -------
TEST_PROC   VALID

However, changing the data type of the col1 column, which the test_proc procedure depends on in, invalidates the procedure:

SQL> ALTER TABLE test_table MODIFY col1 VARCHAR2(20);
 
Table altered.
 
SQL> SELECT OBJECT_NAME, STATUS FROM USER_OBJECTS WHERE OBJECT_NAME = 'TEST_PROC';
 
OBJECT_NAME STATUS
----------- -------
TEST_PROC   INVALID

Running or recompiling the procedure makes it valid again, as shown in the following example:

SQL> EXECUTE test_proc
 
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
 
SQL> SELECT OBJECT_NAME, STATUS FROM USER_OBJECTS WHERE OBJECT_NAME = 'TEST_PROC';
 
OBJECT_NAME STATUS
----------- -------
TEST_PROC   VALID

All Oracle databases include default administrative accounts.

Administrative accounts are highly privileged and are intended only for DBAs authorized to perform tasks such as starting and stopping the database, managing memory and storage, creating and managing database users, and so on.

The SYS administrative account is automatically created when a database is created. This account can perform all database administrative functions. The SYS schema stores the base tables and views for the data dictionary. These base tables and views are critical for the operation of Oracle Database. Tables in the SYS schema are manipulated only by the database and must never be modified by any user.

The SYSTEM administrative account is also automatically created when a database is created. The SYSTEM schema stores additional tables and views that display administrative information, and internal tables and views used by various Oracle Database options and tools. Never use the SYSTEM schema to store tables of interest to nonadministrative users.

An Oracle database may include sample schemas, which are a set of interlinked schemas that enable Oracle documentation and Oracle instructional materials to illustrate common database tasks.

The hr sample schema contains information about employees, departments and locations, work histories, and so on. The following illustration depicts an entity-relationship diagram of the tables in hr. Most examples in this manual use objects from this schema.

Figure 2-3 HR Schema

Description of "Figure 2-3 HR Schema"

A table definition includes a table name and set of columns.

A column identifies an attribute of the entity described by the table. For example, the column employee_id in the employees table refers to the employee ID attribute of an employee entity.

In general, you give each column a column name, a data type, and a width when you create a table. For example, the data type for employee_id is NUMBER(6), indicating that this column can only contain numeric data up to 6 digits in width. The width can be predetermined by the data type, as with DATE.

A row is a collection of column information corresponding to a record in a table.

For example, a row in the employees table describes the attributes of a specific employee: employee ID, last name, first name, and so on. After you create a table, you can insert, query, delete, and update rows using SQL.

The Oracle SQL statement to create a table is CREATE TABLE.

CREATE TABLE employees
    ( employee_id    NUMBER(6)
    , first_name     VARCHAR2(20)
    , last_name      VARCHAR2(25)
         CONSTRAINT     emp_last_name_nn  NOT NULL
    , email          VARCHAR2(25)
        CONSTRAINT     emp_email_nn  NOT NULL
    , phone_number   VARCHAR2(20)
    , hire_date      DATE
        CONSTRAINT     emp_hire_date_nn  NOT NULL
    , job_id         VARCHAR2(10)
        CONSTRAINT     emp_job_nn  NOT NULL
    , salary         NUMBER(8,2)
    , commission_pct NUMBER(2,2)
    , manager_id     NUMBER(6)
    , department_id  NUMBER(4)
    , CONSTRAINT     emp_salary_min
                     CHECK (salary > 0)
    , CONSTRAINT     emp_email_uk
                     UNIQUE (email)
    ) ;

ALTER TABLE employees
ADD ( CONSTRAINT     emp_emp_id_pk
                       PRIMARY KEY (employee_id)
    , CONSTRAINT     emp_dept_fk
                       FOREIGN KEY (department_id)
                         REFERENCES departments
    , CONSTRAINT     emp_job_fk
                       FOREIGN KEY (job_id)
                         REFERENCES jobs (job_id)
    , CONSTRAINT     emp_manager_fk
                       FOREIGN KEY (manager_id)
                         REFERENCES employees
    ) ;

EMPLOYEE_ID FIRST_NAME  LAST_NAME      SALARY COMMISSION_PCT DEPARTMENT_ID
----------- ----------- ------------- ------- -------------- -------------
        100 Steven      King            24000                           90
        101 Neena       Kochhar         17000                           90
        102 Lex         De Haan         17000                           90
        103 Alexander   Hunold           9000                           60
        107 Diana       Lorentz          4200                           60
        149 Eleni       Zlotkey         10500             .2            80
        174 Ellen       Abel            11000             .3            80
        178 Kimberely   Grant            7000            .15

Each column has a data type, which is associated with a specific storage format, constraints, and valid range of values. The data type of a value associates a fixed set of properties with the value.

These properties cause Oracle Database to treat values of one data type differently from values of another. For example, you can multiply values of the NUMBER data type, but not values of the RAW data type.

When you create a table, you must specify a data type for each of its columns. Each value subsequently inserted in a column assumes the column data type.

Oracle Database provides several built-in data types. The most commonly used data types fall into the following categories:

• Character Data Types

• Numeric Data Types

• Datetime Data Types

• Rowid Data Types

• Format Models and Data Types

Other important categories of built-in types include raw, large objects (LOBs), and collections. PL/SQL has data types for constants and variables, which include BOOLEAN, reference types, composite types (records), and user-defined types.

An integrity constraint is a named rule that restrict the values for one or more columns in a table.

Data integrity rules prevent invalid data entry into tables. Also, constraints can prevent the deletion of a table when certain dependencies exist.

If a constraint is enabled, then the database checks data as it is entered or updated. Oracle Database prevents data that does not conform to the constraint from being entered. If a constraint is disabled, then Oracle Database allows data that does not conform to the constraint to enter the database.

In Example 2-1, the CREATE TABLE statement specifies NOT NULL constraints for the last_name, email, hire_date, and job_id columns. The constraint clauses identify the columns and the conditions of the constraint. These constraints ensure that the specified columns contain no null values. For example, an attempt to insert a new employee without a job ID generates an error.

You can create a constraint when or after you create a table. You can temporarily disable constraints if needed. The database stores constraints in the data dictionary.

Oracle Database uses a data segment in a tablespace to hold table data.

A segment contains extents made up of data blocks. The data segment for a table (or cluster data segment, for a table cluster) is located in either the default tablespace of the table owner or in a tablespace named in the CREATE TABLE statement.

The database can use table compression to reduce the amount of storage required for the table.

Compression saves disk space, reduces memory use in the database buffer cache, and in some cases speeds query execution. Table compression is transparent to database applications.

A hash cluster is like an indexed cluster, except the index key is replaced with a hash function. No separate cluster index exists. In a hash cluster, the data is the index.

With an indexed table or indexed cluster, Oracle Database locates table rows using key values stored in a separate index. To find or store a row in an indexed table or table cluster, the database must perform at least two I/Os:

• One or more I/Os to find or store the key value in the index

• Another I/O to read or write the row in the table or table cluster

To find or store a row in a hash cluster, Oracle Database applies the hash function to the cluster key value of the row. The resulting hash value corresponds to a data block in the cluster, which the database reads or writes on behalf of the issued statement.

Hashing is an optional way of storing table data to improve the performance of data retrieval. Hash clusters may be beneficial when the following conditions are met:

• A table is queried much more often than modified.

• The hash key column is queried frequently with equality conditions, for example, WHERE department_id=20. For such queries, the cluster key value is hashed. The hash key value points directly to the disk area that stores the rows.

• You can reasonably guess the number of hash keys and the size of the data stored with each key value.

The primary benefit of attribute-clustered tables is I/O reduction, which can significantly reduce the I/O cost and CPU cost of table scans. I/O reduction occurs either with zones or by reducing physical I/O through closer physical proximity on disk for the clustered values.

An attribute-clustered table has the following advantages:

• You can cluster fact tables based on dimension columns in star schemas.

  In star schemas, most queries qualify dimension tables and not fact tables, so clustering by fact table columns is not effective. Oracle Database supports clustering on columns in dimension tables.

• I/O reduction can occur in several different scenarios:

  • When used with Oracle Exadata Storage Indexes, Oracle In-Memory min/max pruning, or zone maps

  • In OLTP applications for queries that qualify a prefix and use attribute clustering with linear order

  • On a subset of the clustering columns for BY INTERLEAVED ORDER clustering

• Attribute clustering can improve data compression, and in this way indirectly improve table scan costs.

  When the same values are close to each other on disk, the database can more easily compress them.

• Oracle Database does not incur the storage and maintenance cost of an index.

Attribute clustering that is based on joined columns is called join attribute clustering. In contrast with table clusters, join attribute clustered tables do not store data from a group of tables in the same database blocks.

For example, consider an attribute-clustered table, sales, joined with a dimension table, products. The sales table contains only rows from the sales table, but the ordering of the rows is based on the values of columns joined from products table. The appropriate join is executed during data movement, direct path insert, and CREATE TABLE AS SELECT operations. In contrast, if sales and products were in a standard table cluster, the data blocks would contain rows from both tables.

A zone is a set of contiguous data blocks that stores the minimum and maximum values of relevant columns. When a SQL statement contains predicates on columns stored in a zone, the database compares the predicate values to the minimum and maximum stored in the zone to determine which zones to read during SQL execution.

I/O reduction is the ability to skip table or index blocks that do not contain data that the database needs to satisfy the query. This reduction can significantly reduce the I/O and CPU cost of table scans.

A linear ordering scheme for a table divides rows into ranges based on user-specified attributes in a specific order. Oracle Database supports linear ordering on single or multiple tables that are connected through a primary-foreign key relationship.

For example, the sales table divides the cust_id and prod_id columns into ranges, and then clusters these ranges together on disk. When you specify the BY LINEAR ORDER directive for a table, significant I/O reduction can occur when a predicate specifies either the prefix column or all columns in the directive.

Assume that queries of sales often specify either a customer ID or a combination of a customer ID and product ID. You can create an attribute-clustered table so that such queries benefit from I/O reduction:

CREATE TABLE sales
(
   prod_id     NOT NULL NUMBER
,  cust_id     NOT NULL NUMBER
,  amount_sold NUMBER(10,2) ...
)
CLUSTERING 
  BY LINEAR ORDER (cust_id, prod_id)
  YES ON LOAD YES ON DATA MOVEMENT
  WITH MATERIALIZED ZONEMAP;

Queries that qualify both columns cust_id and prod_id, or the prefix cust_id experience I/O reduction. Queries that qualify prod_id only do not experience significant I/O reduction because prod_id is the suffix of the BY LINEAR ORDER clause. The following examples show how the database can reduce I/O during table scans.

SELECT * FROM sales WHERE cust_id = 100;

SELECT * FROM sales WHERE cust_id = 100 AND prod_id = 2300;

Interleaved ordering uses a technique that is similar to a Z-order.

Interleaved ordering enables the database to prune I/O based on any subset of predicates in the clustering columns. Interleaved ordering is useful for dimensional hierarchies in a data warehouse.

As with attribute-clustered tables with linear ordering, Oracle Database supports interleaved ordering on single or multiple tables that are connected through a primary-foreign key relationship. Columns in tables other than the attribute-clustered table must be linked by foreign key and joined to the attribute-clustered table.

Large data warehouses frequently organize data in a star schema. A dimension table uses a parent-child hierarchy and is connected to a fact table by a foreign key. Clustering a fact table by interleaved order enables the database to use a special function to skip values in dimension columns during table scans.

CREATE TABLE sales
(
   prod_id NUMBER NOT NULL
,  cust_id NUMBER NOT NULL
,  amount_sold NUMBER(10,2) ...
)
CLUSTERING sales
   JOIN products ON (sales.prod_id = products.prod_id)
   JOIN customers ON (sales.cust_id = customers.cust_id)
   BY INTERLEAVED ORDER
   (
     (  products.prod_category
     ,  products.prod_subcategory
     ),
     (  customers.cust_state_province
     ,  customers.cust_city
     )
   )
WITH MATERIALIZED ZONEMAP;

SELECT cust_city, prod_sub_category, SUM(amount_sold)
FROM   sales, products, customers
WHERE  sales.prod_id = products.prod_id 
AND    sales.cust_id = customers.cust_id
AND    customers.prod_category = 'Boys' 
AND    customers.cust_state_province = 'England - Norfolk' 
GROUP BY cust_city, prod_sub_category;

Like permanent tables, global temporary tables are persistent objects that are statically defined in the data dictionary. For private temporary tables, metadata exists only in memory, but can reside in the temporary tablespace on disk.

For global and private temporary tables, the database allocates temporary segments when a session first inserts data. Until data is loaded in a session, the table appears empty. For transaction-specific temporary tables, the database deallocates temporary segments at the end of the transaction. For session-specific temporary tables, the database deallocates temporary segments at the end of the session.

The CREATE ... TEMPORARY TABLE statement creates a temporary table.

Specify either GLOBAL TEMPORARY TABLE or PRIVATE TEMPORARY TABLE. In both cases, the ON COMMIT clause specifies whether the table data is transaction-specific (default) or session-specific. You create a temporary table for the database itself, not for every PL/SQL stored procedure.

You can create indexes for global (not private) temporary tables with the CREATE INDEX statement. These indexes are also temporary. The data in the index has the same session or transaction scope as the data in the temporary table. You can also create a view or trigger on a global temporary table.

An access driver is an API that interprets the external data for the database. The access driver runs inside the database, which uses the driver to read the data in the external table. The access driver and the external table layer are responsible for performing the transformations required on the data in the data file so that it matches the external table definition.

The following figure represents SQL access of external data.

Figure 2-8 External Tables

Description of "Figure 2-8 External Tables"

Oracle provides the following access drivers for external tables:

• ORACLE_LOADER (default)

  Enables read-only access to external files using SQL*Loader. You cannot create, update, or append to an external file using the ORACLE_LOADER driver.

• ORACLE_DATAPUMP

  Enables you to unload or load external data. An unload operation reads data from the database and inserts the data into an external table, represented by one or more external files. After external files are created, the database cannot update or append data to them. A load operation reads an external table and loads its data into a database.

• ORACLE_HDFS

  Enables the extraction of data stored in a Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS).

• ORACLE_HIVE

  Enables access to data stored in an Apache Hive database. The source data can be stored in HDFS, HBase, Cassandra, or other systems. Unlike the other access drivers, you cannot specify a location because ORACLE_HIVE obtains location information from an external metadata store.

Internally, creating an external table means creating metadata in the data dictionary. Unlike an ordinary table, an external table does not describe data stored in the database, nor does it describe how data is stored externally. Rather, external table metadata describes how the external table layer must present data to the database.

A CREATE TABLE ... ORGANIZATION EXTERNAL statement has two parts. The external table definition describes the column types. This definition is like a view that enables SQL to query external data without loading it into the database. The second part of the statement maps the external data to the columns.

External tables are read-only unless created with CREATE TABLE AS SELECT with the ORACLE_DATAPUMP access driver. Restrictions for external tables include no support for indexed columns and column objects.